High in the El Paso Range, in the upper reaches of Mesquite Canyon, twelve miles west of Randsburg, in the living exponent of persistence, William Schmidt, better known to desert folks in that area as “Burro” Schmidt, 80-year-old recluse, “Burro” spent forty years of his life accomplishing one thing—hand-drilling a half-mile tunnel entirely through a mountain.
Over that period, he worked on farms in the Kern River Valley, accumulating “beans” for the winter at his mine. Regularly, he appeared in Johannesburg with his burros and loaded up supplies at the Teagle’s Store each fall. 1937, his tunnel was finished, and the accomplishment received national publicity. Photographs of the tunnel, his burrow, and “Burro” Schmidt appeared in daily press and international mining journals. Single jack and drill steel and “Burro” Schmidt were the combination that did the job — no compressed air or gasoline motors.
As he nears the end of the trail, happy to have completed a lifetime undertaking, he proposes offering his tunnel and the story of mineralogy it tells to a California university. It will be a natural laboratory for the new generations who want to know the story of the rocks. It is a noble gesture from a nobleman of the desert hills.
This Story by Jack Smith of the Los Angeles “Times” shows that smart Newsmen can always find a “Pocket Full of Miracles” — At Old Fort Oliver.
Tall Tales for Short Attention Spans
PALM SPRINGS— Harry Oliver, the old desert rat, was listening to the World Series on his radio when we dropped by to see if he had new lies.
Oliver lives out in the desert in a “100-year-old” adobe fort he built about 20 years ago. He calls it Ft. Oliver. The yard is full of rusty old antiques, including Oliver’s 17-year-old dog Whiskers.
Oliver said Whiskers is getting deaf. Oliver bought him a hearing aid. Whiskers swallowed the works. He thought it was a peanut.
“He keeps hearing his old stomach rumbling and thinks it’s thunder,” Oliver said. “He goes in the house to get out of the rain.”
Besides Whiskers Oliver has two bobtail cats, Dot and Comma. “They’re supposed to help me punctuate,” Oliver said. Oliver is the Editor and the entire staff of Harry Oliver’s Desert Rat Scrap Book.
It is printed four times a year on a big piece of paper folded four times. It has two slogans: “Price two bits” and “Only newspaper you can open in the wind.”
The Scrapbook is full of philosophy, wit and facts. A mosquito has 22 teeth; bees tases with their knees. These are facts from the Scrapbook. Dry Camp Blackie would rather have a cat than a TV set. This is philosophy.
We met Dry Camp Blackie. He said hello. He was sitting in the shade outside Ft. Oliver with Whiskers. Blackie sat there all the time we were there and was sitting when we left.
Harry loves and protects all desert creatures. He has a talking crow and used to have a tortoise named Hopalong Pushadee. He died.
Oliver says the buzzards come back to Ft. Oliver every year like the swallows come back to Capistrano.
Oliver has a Ford station wagon which he says he has driven for 33 years without denting a fender or running over a horned toad. He is the inventor of the mule swearing contest where a man gets a prize for cussing out a mule the best, and the lazy dog contest for the laziest dog. The dog and his owner each get a prize.
Oliver has fought for years to save the burros. He also invented thde burro flapjack contest for prospectors and burros. The prospectors have to pack their burros, race 100 yds., unpack, build a fire and cook a flapjack. The first prospector who gets his burro to eat a flapjack gets a prize. I believe the burro does, too.
Oliver talks to his crow and used to talk to Hopalong. He is trying to teach Whiskers to bark in italics. Oliver knows desert weather. Last August he predicted August was going to be as hot as July was all through September. It was. He says in the desert a 6-inch rain means the drops were 6 inches apart.
Oliver is 74-5/12 years young. “After you pass 70 you count your age like children,” he says. “You put in the quarters and halves.” His hair and beard are white but he’s as tough as an old wagon wheel. He says the future is getting here quicker than it used to, though.
Oliver is like old Sky-Eye Jones, who is Oliver’s flying saucer expert. Sky-Eye is 90. He has discovered that every time he lives through March he lives through the whole year, so far.
Oliver says he owes his jokes to his memory and his facts to his imagination. But so what? His paper only costs two-bits.
In the beginning, Calico prided itself on being an anti-Chinese camp. But it proved almost impossible to get any but Chinese cooks, so anyone who maintained a mine boarding house or restaurant in the Calicos just about had to hire Chinese help.
Yung Hen-naturally called Young, started as a cook in the Snowbird mine in Mule Canyon. He was perhaps 50, though it was difficult to judge his age. In fact all of them – wore a long queue. And though they wore levis, they also wore their traditional Chinese blouses. I believe he was Cantonese.
After cooking at several mines, Yung Hen decided to go into business for himself by starting a restaurant in Calico. A mass meeting was held to prevent it at which a big Cornish miner arose and gave his solution to the problem: “I tell you, boys, if – we just keep the first one out we’ll never have any trouble with those that come afterward.”
The mass meeting didn’t stop Young Hen, nor did attempts to frighten .him away. Once a group took him out and actually had the rope around his neck, threatening to hang him if he did not leave. He said calmly, “All right, go ahead. Plenty more Chinamen where I come from.”
In time Yung Hen had three or four boarding houses. He spent most of his time in Calico, putting his cousins in the others as managers. In 1885 he bought out the family running the boarding house at the Occidental mine, where I was carpenter. I was loaned to him. He told me what he wanted done, building tables and benches, and moving partitions in adding another room to the building. Then he left me with his two cousins, who were I laughing and skylarking all day long.
One day these boys wanted me to eat with them. They had cooked a dish which they seemed to consider a great delicacy – with a foundation of dried abalones about the size and toughness of rubber boot heels and fully as black. After these had boiled a couple of hours, Chinese cabbage and some sort of small fish, both of which smelled to high heaven, were added and all were boiled another hour. Twenty minutes before serving, two-inch cubes of fat fresh pork were added and cooked just long enough to become nearly transparent. The boys insisted that the stew was velly nice, but I felt I must decline it.
A couple of days after Christmas 1884, a young Irishman known as Scotty, who had been celebrating by imbibing largely on “tarantula juice,” decided to complete the celebration with a turkey dinner. So he flied to Yung Hen’s Calico restaurant and ordered turkey and fixin’s. The two young Chinese boys – cousins or nephews of Yung Hen – set before him all their remaining turkey, largely, scraps and bones.
This so highly offended Scotty that he forgot the spirit of Christmas, threw the food at the boy who waited on him, upset the table, and began smashing dishes and furniture. The two Chinese boys grappled with him, trying to put him outside, and in the melee, Scotty lost one shoe, most of one pants leg, and his shirt.
To the glory of old Ireland, he was holding his own until one of the boys rushed into the kitchen, returning with a bucket of almostboiling water in one hand and a long-handled dipper in the other. A few dippers of water placed where they did the most good and the restaurant and whole camp were too small for friend Scotty. He made what the boys facetiously called a straight shirttail for the mine where he was employed and spent several days nursing various scalded places about his person, the while he cursed the Chinese people in general and the relatives of Yung Hen in particular.
He didn’t receive much sympathy, however, as by then Yung Hen stood well in the camp. A goodly number of prospectors had been grubstaked by him and many a man had eaten on credit with him until he could get a job.
And by that time they had a saying that though he might be a young hen in name he was some tough old rooster by nature.
Ruins of a ‘Cousin Jack’ house at Bismarck in the Calico Mountains
Most of the small piled rock and semi-dugout dwellings near the mines at Calico were built by Cornish miners, known as “Cousin Jacks,” possibly because about every third person among them was named John and called Jack and because so many of them seemed to be related. They had a great feeling for ties of blood, and when they became prosperous, they would send for their relatives.
I first became acquainted with them at the Garfield mine in Odessa canyon in 1884. About 50 per cent of the working force there, including the mine foreman, was Cornish. They spoke a patois all their own; a mixture of English, Welsh and probably Gaelic, with a few words brought down from the ancient Picts. Their sentence structure was unique which, with their peculiar accent and mode of speaking made it hard for one not acquainted to I understand them. I remember once there was an Englishman in camp, from a county just north of Cornwall and a Cousin Jack criticized his speech, saying, “Why don’t ‘e speaken English like I do?” The Englishman retorted: “You don’t speak English-you gobble!”
And they did gobble, speaking rapidly in a deep guttural. They had many peculiarities of tongue. “Take” was always “taken.” An ore car was always a “wagon” and they never pushed, but would “go forth” with it. They used the third person where we ordinarily use the second, and most of their sentences ended with “you.” “How’s the mother, you?”
I soon caught onto their language, and as they were almost without exception kindly and companionable I men, I enjoyed working with them and learned much from them, both of the trade of mining and their history and beliefs. For example, there were the Tommy Knockers – if that is the way it is spelled. These were the little people who populated the mines. They were in the walls and everywhere, according to the Cousin Jacks. You know, in a mine tunnel more than anywhere else there are mysterious sounds – the natural creaking of timbers and settling of rocks – and of course these were the Tommy Knockers, warning of impending disaster. It was just too bad if you could not understand what they were trying to say, for they might be warning you.
I remember only one characteristic food of the Cousin Jacks – cakes and puddings colored with saffron. I suppose it was all right, but that orange-yellow looked pretty deadly to me. The pudding was made of cut up dried or canned fruit – any kind they happened to have – with just enough flour to hold it together and saffron. This was put in a cloth or sack and boiled.
The Cornishmen did not combine to any extent the calling of miner with that of prospector, as did most other nationalities. They were the best miners as a whole that the world could boast, having followed the trade, father and son, for centuries. The big Cornishman Jack Pascoe was a fine example. Jack was well over six feet in height and every inch a miner, and a great worker. At one time he was hired for a short time to substitute for one of three partners who were doing 400 feet of tunnel in the King mine by contract. Putting in every third shift in the tunnel, Jack raised its roof by a foot and a half every shift he worked, in order to accommodate his great height. When the annoyed contractors protested, his reply was:
“Dammee, old son, you! Have to maken place for my feet!”
The wavy roof in this tunnel became known as Jack Pascoe’s mark.
When I visited it last in 1941, I could tell exactly the number of shifts Jack had worked.
Stories of life in the days when Calico was booming were collected by Alice Salisbury, from women who had lived in the colorful camp, and printed in the Barstow Printer-Review. Here are some of the memories that Mrs. Salisbury preserved:
Mrs. Lucy B. Lane – I was very happy as a school girl in Calico when the town was in its prime. The thing that bothers me is to have people ask me to describe some of the murders and shootings and brawls that they say must have taken place in a booming silver camp in the ’89s. Only two murders, you know, in the whole course of Calico’s history, and those committed by strangers, one a card-cheating affair, and one a boundary fight.
Mrs. Annie Falconer – of course there weren’t any little plaster saints up there in Calico. The men all thought they had to wash that red dust out of their throats with plenty of liquor and at one time 13 saloons were helping them to do it.
There we were, occupying a plateau only 350 yards long. Private houses, three general stores, two drugstores, a jewelry store run by Mr. Stacy, restaurants, the Palace and later the Cosmopolitan hotels – 20 rooms with lace curtains, those saloons, two dance halls, the town hall, assay offices, the Chinese quarter about 40 strong in the gully just below us to the east – all rubbing elbows goodnaturedly.
Alice La Maintain – Calico’s additions to Main Street were made by extension bridges thrown across those unhandy gullies. At first, tents, cave-dugouts, rough looking houses with tiers of bunks lining the walls sprung up like mushrooms, frame houses built from lumber teamed clear from San Bernardino.
Sarah Kennedy – Water was pumped from wells down on the water levels and was stored in a huge redwood tank located high above the town and piped by gravity into every house for $1.50 a month.
Fanny Mudgett – Fun? Of course we had fun – nice fun, too. I tell you, Calico was a real home town, not a brawling, shooting, bloody camp. We girls invited our boy friends home and entertained them with “sings” around the cottage organ, or the guitar, or the violin.
I’ve never gone to such nice jolly dances since I left Calico. I can shut my eyes now and hear Bill Nelson’s fiddle playing “The Beautiful Blue Danube!” My brother, Jimmy Mulcahy, Tornado Tim and Whooper Up Mike were all wonders at calling for the square dances.
Mrs. Endora Goodrich – There were some mighty pretty, lively girls up there in Calico, and nice girls were treated mighty respectfully by those “wild” Calico menfolks, but not so respectfully that they didn’t have plenty of lively fun. Who wouldn’t with about three men to every girl?
Mrs. Oliver Connell – We women all took to nursing like ducks to water. Whenever anyone with or without a family was sick, we all flew in and tried to help things along. When the pneumonia epidemic almost filled up Calico’s cemetery, we had our hands full. Graves were blasted out of rock. That was sad mining for us.
The Silver King Mining Co., Ltd. Mill 30 Stamps, Calico. The camp’s richest producer, photograph taken about 1883. The Silver King was named for John C. King, Sheriff of San Bernardino County from 1879 to 1882 and uncle of Walter Knott.
The first discovery of mineral made in this fabulously rich mining district was made some seven or eight years ago (1874-75) about three miles northerly from Grape Vine Station (now Barstow) and Waterman & Porter’s mill and about eight miles distant from the rich and extensive mineral belt which surrounds for miles in every direction the promising town of Calico. It was made by an eccentric old man by the name of Lee, who was, it is supposed, killed by Indians whilst on one of his solitary prospecting expeditions some three years ago in the vicinity of Old Woman Springs.
Lee first located on the property now owned by Waterman & Porter upon which they keep a fine ten-stamp mill and a large force of men in constant operation, the mill each day adding to the country’s wealth. This ledge was worked by Lee for a quicksilver mine, and the rich horn silver for which it is so famous was called by him “pencil lead,” he taking the’ native silver for particles of quicksilver. The work, having been abandoned for some two or three years consequent upon the death of Lee, Waterman, and Porter, being out in quest of mining properties, were shown the property by Mr. E. J. Miller, Recorder of the Grape Vine District.
Porter, being a practical miner, on his first visit, recognized the immense value of the property and immediately commenced making locations. This was in the fall of 1880. During that winter and in the spring of 1881, hundreds of locations were made in the immediate vicinity until not a red rock remains but what is well monumented.
Not until the spring of 1881 were there any discoveries made on Calico Mountain. The first was made by Lowery Silver (elsewhere Silva), who is still a resident miner of the district, and was made a short distance north of where the town of Calico is now situated. The first work of any note that was done in what is now Calico District, but then the Grape Vine District (Calico having lately segregated), was some four miles northwesterly from the town on the Consolidated and Pico claims. In March or April last, our worthy under-sheriff, Tom Warden, together with Hues Thomas and others, discovered the wonder of the age, the great “King Mine,” the richest and biggest mine in the State of California.
After these discoveries many others were made and located, among which were the Oriental series by Messrs. Allison, Waldrip, Day and others and subsequently sold to Messrs. Earl & Garnett, of San Francisco. This splendid property, upon which a tramway and mill are soon to be built, is being rapidly developed under the superintendency of Judge James Walsh; while Sam James keeps his weather eye open upon the doings around the famous King Mine. During the fore part of July last the rich deposits of the Burning Moscow were located by J. B. Whitfield, John Peterson and Hieronymas Hartman. This mine is still in active operation, having produced some of the richest hornsilver ore ever found in camp.
Rich locations are still being made each day adding to the number, and the rich finds lately made in the eastern portion of the district have given an impetus to prospecting.
One year ago where Calico now stands there was not a single house, and on Wall street but one camp (Allison’s) and James Parker and Ellie Miller were the sole inhabitants, on the Fourth of July last, and not until Sam James and his party arrived a few days afterward to commence operations on the King Mine was there any show of activity. If one year has made so decided a change what may we not expect during the next 12 months: From present appearances we hazard. the opinion that e’er another year shall have rolled around that our little wooden village will have given place to an active, busy, bustling mining town, second to none in this or any other State or Territory. Surely the richness and number of our mines demand it.
Borax, also known as sodium borate or sodium tetraborate, is a versatile compound with various applications across different industries. This overview outlines borax, its chemical composition, properties, and uses in various fields.
Chemical Composition:
Borax is an inorganic compound comprising sodium, boron, oxygen, and water molecules. Its chemical formula is Na2B4O7·10H2O, indicating that each unit of borax contains two sodium atoms (Na), four boron atoms (B), seven oxygen atoms (O), and ten water molecules (H2O).
Physical Properties:
Borax appears as a white, crystalline powder or granules, which are odorless and tasteless. It is soluble in water, and its solubility increases with temperature. Borax has a melting point of approximately 743°C (1369°F) and a boiling point of around 1575°C (2877°F).
Uses:
1. Cleaning and Laundry:
Borax is widely used as a cleaning agent due to its alkaline nature and ability to dissolve grease and dirt. It can be found in many household cleaning products, such as laundry detergents, dish soap, and multipurpose cleaners. Additionally, borax is an effective stain remover and can tackle stubborn stains on clothes and carpets.
2. Pest Control:
Borax is commonly used as an insecticide and a natural pest control agent. Due to its abrasive properties, it can be used to eliminate pests like ants, cockroaches, and silverfish. By disrupting their exoskeletons, borax causes dehydration and eventually leads to their demise.
3. Flame Retardant:
In the textile industry, borax is used as a flame retardant. It can be added to fabrics and materials to reduce flammability, making them safer in fire accidents. Borax releases water molecules when exposed to high temperatures, slowing flame spread.
4. Metallurgy:
Borax has applications in metallurgy, particularly soldering and welding. It acts as a flux, facilitating the removal of oxide layers from metal surfaces, ensuring better soldering or welding material adhesion. Borax also prevents oxidation during soldering or welding.
5. Ceramic and Glass Production:
Borax is an essential ingredient in the production of ceramics and glass. It acts as a flux, reducing the melting point of materials and aiding in the fusion of different components. Borax also improves the durability and strength of ceramics and glass products.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, borax is a versatile compound with numerous applications in various industries. Its chemical composition, physical properties, and unique characteristics make it a valuable ingredient in cleaning products, pest control, flame retardants, metallurgy, and ceramic and glass production. Understanding the uses and properties of borax can provide insights into its importance and contribute to its effective and safe application in different fields.
The Old Woman, California, IIAB iron meteorite Howard PLOTKIN, Roy S. CLARKE, JR., Timothy J. Mc COY, and Catherine M. CORRIGAN Department of Mineral Sciences, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, P.O. Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
Summary
PAGE 1
DISCOVERY OF THE METEORITE
Two prospectors found a large dark-colored rock in the Old Woman Mountains in March 1976. They were sure it was a meteorite because they had seen pictures of them in school and museums.
The two prospectors and Jack Harwood tried to figure out what to do with their ”Lucky Nugget” find but lacked the funds needed to hire a helicopter.
They sent a small chip to the Griffith Observatory, but the curator did not detect nickel and concluded that the specimen was not meteoritic.
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Friberg sent a letter to the Smithsonian asking for a value scale for a meteorite, and on August 27, they requested a fragment be sent to them for study. On September 10, they received a reply saying that they would like to conduct an on-site investigation.
TRIP TO THE OLD WOMAN MOUNTAINS
Clarke arranged with Friberg to investigate the meteorite near Twentynine Palms, California. He visited the administrative office of the nearby Joshua Tree National Monument to inform officials of his visit and get their permission to go into the field.
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Clarke, Friberg, and Harwood traveled to the meteorite site in a 1949 four-wheel drive Power Wagon and hiked up the mountain to reach the meteorite. Clarke took several measurements and photographs, and the group left the meteorite at 5:40.
Clarke suspected the meteorite was on federal land and visited the Riverside BLM office on September 23 and 24. He suggested returning to the site with Friberg and BLM officials to determine its location.
Clarke went to the BLM office early in the morning and was picked up by a helicopter. They flew to the agreed-upon rendezvous point but found no one there and then flew to the Old Woman Mountains, where Clarke led them to the meteorite.
On October 1, Gerald Hillier wrote to Friberg to inform him that the meteorite was located on national resource lands and was, therefore, subject to the jurisdiction of the Federal Government. Friberg went to see a lawyer the same day Clarke wrote this letter.
THE QUESTION OF THE METEORITE’S OWNERSHIP
The ownership of meteorites has often been controversial, with the Iowa Supreme Court upholding the landowner Goddard over the finder Winchell and the Oregon Supreme Court upholding the landowner Oregon Iron Company over the finder Hughes.
The finders of a meteorite filed a placer mining claim on the land where it was situated. Still, they were notified by the District Manager of the Riverside BLM that meteorites are not locatable since they do not constitute a valuable mineral deposit.
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A Smithsonian Curator was told that a meteorite found by Japanese-Americans interned on federal lands in the Utah desert was not subject to mining laws and would be transferred to the Smithsonian Institution under the Antiquities Act.
The Smithsonian was granted ownership of the meteorite under the powers of the Antiquities Act, which allowed scientific and educational institutions to gather objects of historic or scientific interest on federal lands.
The Antiquities Act granted the three secretaries jurisdiction over objects of historic or scientific interest. It stipulated that all permits granted by the secretaries ”shall be referred to the Smithsonian Institution for recommendation”. The Old Woman meteorite fell under this jurisdiction.
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The Smithsonian wanted to transfer the Old Woman meteorite to the National Meteorite Collection. Still, the decision was under heavy fire from lawyers representing the finders and John Wasson, a professor of geochemistry and chemistry at the University of California, Los Angeles.
In mid-November, Wasson wrote Clarke and the two California senators, requesting their help keeping the meteorite in southern California. Wasson pointed out that Californians had recently ”lost” the Goose Lake meteorite to the Smithsonian and that the main question was political rather than legal.
On December 21, the Director of Administrative Services granted Secretary Ripley’s request to recover the Old Woman Mountains meteorite and transfer it to the Smithsonian Institution.
The Smithsonian wanted to transport a meteorite from the mountainside to Washington by helicopter. Still, the Secretary of Defense denied their request, saying they did not utilize military transport when commercial carriers were available.
Barry Goldwater and Secretary Ripley wrote to the new Secretary of Defense, Harold Brown, requesting military assistance to remove a meteorite from a mountain. The Marines were authorized to remove the meteorite on June 17.
REMOVAL OF THE METEORITE FROM THE MOUNTAIN
Clarke arrived back in California on June 13, 1977, spent the next few days at the Riverside BLM office, and moved to Needles the next day to observe the lift.
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A Marine helicopter support team moved a meteorite wedged between two boulders, and a Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron 363 dropped a 25 m cable down to the Marines, who attached it to the meteorite and gently set it down on a desert road 19 km away.
More than 40 representatives of local and national news media, press members, Marines, the meteorite’s three finders, and Wasson were present at the event, and opposing views about the meteorite’s ownership and disposition were strongly voiced.
The Old Woman meteorite was taken off the truck and weighed; it was the second-largest meteorite ever found in the United States. Its exposed upper surface was pitted, reminiscent of regmaglypts, and the bottom surface exhibited a thin, irregular coating of caliche.
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THE DISPUTE MOVES TO THE COURTS
Removing the meteorite from the Old Woman Mountains only intensified the battle over it. The Smithsonian acquired the meteorite on June 24 while still displayed in California.
The Old Woman meteorite had become a cause celebre and was displayed for an additional week at the BLM Riverside office afterwards, it was moved to the San Bernardino County Museum and the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History.
The two discoverers took the matter to court, arguing they owned the meteorite based on their mining claim. The judge denied the temporary restraining order.
The Smithsonian was under increasing pressure to keep the meteorite in California. The Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History requested that the Smithsonian cede all presumed titles to the meteorite to their museum.
PAGE 8
Pressure was also brought to bear upon Cecil Andrus, the Secretary of the Department of the Interior, to allow the Meteorite to go on permanent display in the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History.
The California Congressional Delegation urged Ripley to speed up arrangements for the meteorite’s permanent display in California. Ripley assured them that a portion of the meteorite would be sent to an appropriate museum in California.
Ripley clarified the Smithsonian’s position, pointing out the museum’s long involvement with meteorites and its extensive usage by the national and international scientific community. He assured Wasson that a replica of the meteorite would be sent to an appropriate California museum.
The San Bernardino County Museum and the State of California filed a lawsuit on July 20, 1977, against the BLM, the Department of the Interior, Secretary Ripley, et al., seeking a preliminary injunction against removing the meteorite from California.
When the matter was before the court, the San Bernardino County Museum requested that the Old Woman meteorite remain in California with an appropriate museum or scientific institution.
The Smithsonian received welcome news from the Department of Justice attorney representing the defendants in the Old Woman Mountains meteorite lawsuit.
Combined with strong protests from California, Judge Whelan’s ruling quickly prompted Interior Secretary Andrus to grant custody of the Old Woman Meteorite to the state where it was found, turning down a bid by his agency to haul it back to Washington for display.
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Andrus’s decision served as a game-changer because it allowed the Smithsonian to transfer the right and title to the meteorite to the museum and allowed the museum to offer to ship the main mass of the meteorite to a California museum after its scientific study.
In the weeks that followed, the court-ordered settlement discussions took place. The Smithsonian agreed to a consent decree with the State of California that the United States would negotiate for long-term display of the Old Woman meteorite there.
The Department of the Interior supported the Smithsonian’s plan to bring the meteorite to Washington for scientific analysis, but asked that its display and scientific value not be diminished.
Attorneys from the three parties met again on October 17, and agreed to a five-member committee that would make the final decision on what cutting, if any, would be done on the meteorite.
The California attorneys called for the establishment of a Joint Powers Agreement, under which a three-member committee would investigate the possibility of displaying the meteorite in a museum in California.
Judge Whelan denied the State of California’s and San Bernardino County Museum’s motions for preliminary injunction against removal of a meteorite from California and title to it, and vacated and set aside the temporary restraining order to keep the meteorite in California.
The Smithsonian met with members of Congress’s staff in January and February of 1978 to explain their plan to send a meteorite from California to Washington for study. The meteorite arrived at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History on March 8, 1978.
PAGE 10
The Smithsonian asked Senator Cranston’s staff to help select a museum for the meteorite, and the staff recommended the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History.
Two other problems soon arose, the San Bernardino County Museum appealed Judge Whelan’s ruling, and John Wasson again stepped forward, claiming that the Smithsonian intended to remove a slice of the meteorite for its study, and that this would seriously detract from the exhibit value of the main mass.
Wasson urged that letters be written to Secretaries Andrus and Ripley requesting that no cutting of the meteorite be carried out until the Smithsonian submitted detailed plans, prepared a position paper comparing the scientific and exhibit-related pros and cons of its proposed plan, and invited comments from several curators and iron meteorite researchers.
DEBATE OVER THE CUTTING OF THE METEORITE
Clarke sent a letter to 19 individuals in September 1978 asking their views on how the Old Woman meteorite should be studied.
Wasson responded to Clarke’s letter by asking the recipients to provide him with a copy of their response to confirm that the amount to be removed seems reasonable from the viewpoint of Californians.
Responses to Clarke’s letter were generally favorable to the Smithsonian’s position, with Vagn Buchwald pointing out that Old Woman appeared to be transitional between group IIA and IIB meteorites and that a large cut and polished surface of Old Woman would provide unique data.
PAGE 11
The injunction against cutting the meteorite was denied in 1978 and again in 1979, opening the way for its scientific study.
Cutting began a week later, on May 29, and the first piece was removed on June 5. It was ground, polished, and etched, and Clarke commented that a major cut was essential.
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THE METEORITE’S RETURN TO CALIFORNIA
Although the injunctions against cutting the meteorite were still before the court, the Smithsonian tried to finalize loan arrangements with the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History. Still, the acting director expressed his ”significant objection” to the Smithsonian’s plan to cut the meteorite.
In January 1980, the San Bernardino County Museum and the State of California claimed ownership of the Old Woman meteorite. Still, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit dismissed their claims.
METALLOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE OF THE OLD WOMAN METEORITE
Old Woman is a highly unusual iron meteorite with two structural types, and the metallographic study of the large slice provides invaluable insights into its formation.
The 427.3 kg butt end was divided into a 207 kg butt end and a 174 kg research slice. The research slice was subdivided, producing a thinner complete slice and a partial slice again extensively subsampled. The Old Woman meteorite is a polycrystalline mass with a strongly bimodal distribution. Seven large grains comprise 85% of the surface area and comprise the hexahedral structure within the meteorite.
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Within the larger grains of kamacite, the only Fe,Ni metallic phase identified, are schreibersite chains that can reach several cm in length. These schreibersites often exhibit embayments or skeletal morphologies, and are similar to the ungrouped, low-Ni iron Zacatecas (1792) (Buchwald 1975). Throughout the large kamacite regions, small schreibersites are common. Carbide and graphite are extremely rare, although we did find one schreibersite inclusion rimmed by graphite and Fe metal.
The entire primary structure is extensive shock modification, including shock melting of troilite-daubreelite-schreibersite inclusions, Neumann banding, and formation of subgrain boundaries within kamacite. A heat-altered zone up to several mm in thickness was observed on sections of the meteorites.
Old Woman is a low-Ni, low-P member of group IIAB, with a bulk Ni concentration of 5.86 wt% (5.59 at%), 0.30 wt% P (0.56 at%), and 0.49 wt% Co. Trace element analyses reveal a composition intermediate in the range of IIAB irons.
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The Widmanstatten structure in iron meteorites was reviewed by Yang and Goldstein (2005), who proposed three mechanisms for their formation. Old Woman is on the boundary between massive transformation and mechanism V and only slightly below the field for mechanism III in P.
Old Woman is not unprecedented in having a bimodal structure, with hexahedral and coarsest octahedral structures evolving in the same mass. This structure is thought to be due to nucleation of austenite crystals on sulfide inclusions.
Old Woman could have evolved via the c fi a2 + c fi a + c (mechanism V) or c fi (a + c) fi a + c +ph (mechanism III) pathways into its present polycrystalline state.
Old Woman is a hexahedral ferromagnetic iron with abundant schreibersite. It may have formed through the c fi (a + c) fi a + c +ph fi a + ph pathway, which was described by Yang and Goldstein (2005).
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Old Woman’s diverse structure may be due to several mechanisms within a single mass, suggesting that further study may yield additional insights.
CONCLUSIONS
Old Woman, the largest meteorite in the National Collection of Meteorites, contains transitional textural types that were previously classified as three distinct meteorites. It is now known that these textures are the result of unique combinations of chemistry, nucleation, and cooling history.
The authors thank Tim Rose, Pam Henson and Brian Daniels, the Office of the Smithsonian Institution Archives, George S. Robinson, Nicole Lunning, Katrina Jackson, Ed Scott and Ursula Marvin, and the Edward P. and Rebecca Rogers Henderson Endowment for travel and research funding.
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Marcy Dunn Ramsey’s pencil sketches of the Old Woman meteorite are shown in Fig. S1. The maximum dimension of the meteorite is in the range of 0.8 to 1.0 m.
Fig. S2 shows pencil sketches of the find site of the Old Woman meteorite, a deeply pitted iron meteorite that is approximately 1 m across.
Ludlow, California, a small unincorporated town along Route 66, has a fascinating history stretching back to the late 19th century. Looking into Ludlow’s captivating past sheds light on its significant role in California’s development and the nation.
Early Settlement:
Ludlow’s story began in the 1870s when it served as a crucial railway stop along the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad. The town was named Ludlow in honor of William Ludlow, a prominent railroad engineer. Ludlow’s establishment facilitated transportation and trade in the region.
Mining Boom:
Ludlow experienced a significant boom during the early 1900s, primarily due to the discovery of rich mineral deposits in nearby mines. Gold, silver, and copper mining became the backbone of Ludlow’s economy, attracting miners and prospectors from far and wide. The town flourished with the opening of several mines, leading to a surge in population and the establishment of essential amenities such as schools, saloons, and general stores.
The Birth of Route 66:
In 1926, Route 66 connected Chicago, Illinois, to Santa Monica, California. Structurally located along this iconic highway, Ludlow became a popular pit stop for travelers, providing essential services and accommodations. The construction of Route 66 brought increased prosperity to Ludlow, as it became a hub for tourists and truckers alike.
The Rise and Fall:
Ludlow continued to thrive throughout the mid-20th century, with gas stations, cafes, and motels catering to the needs of travelers along Route 66. However, the town’s fortunes took a downturn with the opening of Interstate 40 in the 1970s, which bypassed Ludlow, diverting traffic away from the once-thriving town. As a result, Ludlow gradually declined, with many businesses closing their doors.
Preservation and Revitalization:
Despite its decline, Ludlow still bears witness to its storied past. Today, it reminds us of Route 66’s golden age, with several historic buildings still standing. Efforts are underway to preserve and restore these structures, allowing visitors to glimpse Ludlow’s vibrant past. The town has also become popular with photographers and history enthusiasts, who appreciate its authentic charm and nostalgic appeal.
Conclusion:
Ludlow, California, has a rich history as a railway stop, mining boomtown, and a prominent pit stop along Route 66. While the town has experienced its fair share of challenges, its historical significance and unique character make it a place worth exploring for anyone interested in California’s past. Ludlow is an enduring legacy of the Old West and the indomitable spirit of the communities that shaped the American landscape.
Rainbow Basin is a unique geological formation in the Mojave Desert in California, United States. Spanning over 1,800 acres, this breathtaking landscape is known for its vibrant colors and fascinating rock formations.
The basin gets its name from the colorful layers of sedimentary rock that are exposed on the surface, creating a stunning visual display. These layers were formed over millions of years due to various geological processes, including the deposition of sediments, erosion, and the uplifting of the Earth’s crust.
One of the main attractions of Rainbow Basin is its diverse range of colors. The rocks here display shades of red, orange, yellow, green, and purple, creating a natural rainbow-like effect. This vibrant palette results from the minerals in the rocks, such as iron oxides, manganese, and copper.
The unique rock formations in Rainbow Basin are also breathtaking. Their intricate shapes and patterns provide a fascinating glimpse into geological history.
Aside from its geological wonders, Rainbow Basin is also home to various plant and animal species. Desert vegetation thrives in this arid environment, with cacti, shrubs, and wildflowers dotting the landscape. Wildlife enthusiasts can spot animals like the desert tortoise, jackrabbits, and various bird species.
Exploring Rainbow Basin is a treat for outdoor enthusiasts and nature lovers. The area offers several hiking trails that allow visitors to immerse themselves in the desert’s beauty.
Visitors to Rainbow Basin should come prepared with water, sunscreen, and sturdy footwear, as the desert environment can be harsh. It is also important to respect the fragile ecosystem and follow any posted regulations to preserve this unique natural wonder.
In conclusion, Rainbow Basin is a mesmerizing destination showcasing nature’s wonders. With its vibrant colors, stunning rock formations, and diverse wildlife, it offers a truly unforgettable experience for those who venture into the Mojave Desert. Whether you are a geology enthusiast, a nature lover, or simply seeking a unique outdoor adventure, Rainbow Basin is a must-visit destination.
